Brazilian Children's Conceptions of Peace, War, and Violence   De Souza, L. K., Sperb, T.M., McCarthy, S., & Biaggio, A.M.B. (2006). Brazilian children's conceptions of peace, war, and violence. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 12, 49-63.
http://www.leaonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/s15327949pac1201_4?cookieSet=1&journalCode=pac

The study looked at how Brazilian children understood the concepts of peace, war, and violence. Thirty boys and 31 girls with a mean age of 12.7 were interviewed either about peace and violence or war and violence. Through content analysis and chi-square tests, it was found that younger children highlighted violence concretely (e.g. weapons). With the older children, a gender difference was found. Boys emphasized conflicts in interests while girls talked more about sense of well-being. Results are discussed and compared to similar international research.

Children and adolescents' conceptions of peace, war, and strategies to attain peace: A Dutch case study   Hakvoort, I. , & Oppenheimer, L. (1993). Children and adolescents' conceptions of peace, war, and strategies to attain peace: A Dutch case study. Journal of Peace Research, 30, 65-77.http://jpr.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/30/1/65

The article is about the study on the developmental understanding of children on the topics of peace and war. Dutch children were interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire. Questions were mainly about war, peace, strategies to attain peace, and knowledge about historical and contemporary war events. Their results found age-related changes in the children's conceptions. Perspective-taking stages were discussed corresponding to this developmental approach.

Children as Victims of War and Terrorism   Myers-Walls, J.A.(2003). Children as victims of war and terrorism. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 8, 41-62. http://www.haworthpress.com/store/ArticleAbstract.asp?sid=CTVV2NN9J30E8K69W3KC5NA8UP
NMDLS0&ID=47295

War and terrorism victimize all people in a country, group, or area, but disputes in recent decades are especially likely to impact children and families. Children can experience wars by being in the war zone, by being in countries that deploy military personnel to a war zone, by suffering from the consequences of military expenses and economic warfare, by experiencing war and terrorism from a distance through media, or by suffering from indoctrination and the building of enemy images. This paper reviews what researchers have discovered about the unique risks associated with each of those categories and recommends promising solutions.

Children's conceptions of peace and war: A longitudinal study   Hakvoort, I. (1996). Children's conceptions of peace and war: A longitudinal study. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 2, 1-15. http://www.leaonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/s15327949pac0201_1

This study is a longitudinal study of 44 Dutch children between the ages of 6 to 10. They were interviewed about their concepts of peace, war, and strategies to attain peace. Results showed that the concept of war developed before the concept of peace. The themes of friendships, absence of quarrels and absence of war were found in children's drawings of peace while images related to the results of war, weapons and soldiers, and war activities dominated the pictures of war.

Comparison of Northern Irish children's attitudes to war and peace before and after the paramilitary ceasefires   McLernon, F., Ferguson, N., & Cairns, E. (1997). Comparison of Northern Irish children's attitudes to war and peace before and after the paramilitary ceasefires. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 20, 715-730. http://jbd.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/20/4/715

The article is about the study comparing the attitudes of 117 adolescents between the ages of 14-15 years about conflict and conflict resolution. The sample completed a questionnaire that asked them to share their ideas about war, peace, and how peace might be achieved. The questionnaire was administered two times in 1994, months before the ceasefire was announced between Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland , and second time was 3 months after the ceasefire announcement. There were marked differences found in the responses of the adolescents and among these are their change in their concept of war as a struggle between national leaders to a general view of war in terms of war activities and consequences. Similarly, the sample's 'active' view of peace also changed to a more abstract view after the ceasefire.

Concepts of peace and war as described by Dutch and Swedish girls and boys  Hakvoort, I. , & Hägglund, S. (2001). Concepts of peace and war as described by Dutch and Swedish girls and boys. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 7, 29-44. http://www.leaonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/S15327949PAC0701_03?journalCode=pac

The article presents a comparative study about children's conceptions of peace and war. 416 Dutch and Swedish children were interviewed. The study's findings point to children's common and core concept of peace which included absence of war, absence of quarrels, and social activities. Differences were also found in their understanding of war and peace. The Dutch children referred to human attitudes while the Swedish children discussed more frequently referred to international collaboration in their responses. Socio-cultural context, age, and gender factors were discussed in the article.  

Differences between war and peace are big: Children from Yugoslavia and the United States describe peace and war, peace and conflict   Myers-Bowman, K. S., Walker, K., & Myers-Walls, J.A. (2005). Differences between war and peace are big: Children from Yugoslavia and the United States describe peace and war, peace and conflict. Journal of Peace Psychology, 11, 177-198. http://www.leaonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/s15327949pac1102_4

The article is about two studies of children's conceptualizations of peace and war from two different environments. Interviews were conducted with children from Belgrade, Yugoslavia after the NATO-Yugoslavian conflict, and children from Midwestern USA. Both samples of children shared common ideas about war and peace although distinct differences can also be found in their answers. Due to their level of exposure to political violence, the Belgrade children refer to their descriptions in the first person and talked about peace being what normal life was for them and war as being the opposite of normal life. U.S. children described peace and war in more general terms including discussing interpersonal relationships and managing conflicts through nonviolent resolutions.

How children think and feel about war and peace: An Australian study   Hall, R. (1993). How children think and feel about war and peace: An Australian study. Journal of Peace Research, 30, 181-196. http://jpr.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/30/2/181

This is an empirical report of data collected from questionnaire and interview survey with 608 children between 4 to 16 years old. The questionnaire and interview schedules contained questions about what the children think about war and peace, their attitudes to these notions, and their reactions on their leaders' directive to fight in war. Gender differences was found in the children's responses which showed boys to be more 'militaristic' while girls' attitudes were more 'pacific'. Other factors such as age, type of school attended, and their feelings of security were also discussed.

Impact of political violence on images of war and peace in the drawings of primary school children   McLernon, F., & Cairns , E. (2001). Impact of political violence on images of war and peace in the drawings of primary school children. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 7, 45-57. http://www.leaonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/S15327949PAC0701_04

Children from 3 schools in Northern Ireland and England drew pictures of war and peace. The 2 places experienced different levels of conflict, where there was sectarian and political violence in Ireland , none can be said about England . The drawings of the children showed that Irish children's drawings emphasized the concept of peace as the absence of war and boys knew more about war than girls.

Parents as Educators About War and Peace   Myers-Walls, J. A., Myers-Bowman, K.S., & Pelo, A.E. (1993). Parents as educators about war and peace. Family Relations, 42, 66-73. http://www.jstor.org/view/01976664/ap020054/02a00120/0

Seventy-one parents of 3- to 13-year-old children completed questionnaires during the summer and early fall of 1989. They were asked what they would say if their children asked them, "What is war" and "What is peace," and they were asked what strategies and methods do they used to teach their children about peace and war. Responses were coded and themes were identified based on how the parents characterized war and peace. Results showed that parents' responses regarding war included action words (e.g. kill, fight, destroy, shoot, etc.), judgment statements (e.g. War is not nice), and references to disagreement as a cause of war. Peace was mostly characterized in a negative way, that is, defined as what it is not. Peace was also described using emotions like happiness, love and feeling good. Comparisons of the responses were made based on sex and group membership (military and peace church) of the parents. Parents' reported teaching methods for communicating about war and peace were reported. Implications and recommendations for parents and family educators are discussed.

Serbian children talk about war and peace   Trebjesanin, Z., Hanak , N., & Kopunovic, D. (2000). Serbian children talk about war and peace. Peace Review, 12, 369-373. http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~db=all~content=a713689700?words=serbian*|children*

During the war in Serbia , 195 girls and boys were interviewed and asked to talk about their experiences. Children talked about NATO and the associations that they have heard and thought of with it including 'alliance of countries' and for younger children, NATO as the 'enemy'. They also talked about war in reference to their experience (i.e. war is "when they bombard us day and night", "war is a bomb"). Other ideas and thoughts of children were discussed about war and peace.

Talking to Children About Terrorism and Armed Conflict   Myers-Walls, J. (2002). Talking to children about terrorism and armed conflict. The Forum for Family and Consumer Issues 7(1).  http://www.extension.ncsu.edu/depts/fcs/pub/2002w/myers-wall.html

The events of September 11, 2001, provided a sudden and unsettling lesson on the impact of violent conflict on children for many parents and teachers. Although the attacks appear to have been confined to a limited number of places and lasted only a short time, people across the world felt and continue to feel threatened and vulnerable. Because of the number of people killed or injured that day, a very large number of people had direct connections with the death and destruction. Children were aware of the tragedy, so parents needed to respond. Research supports some approaches that are likely to be effective when talking with children about terrorism and armed conflict, although this topic needs additional research.

Understanding Peace and War: A Review of Developmental Psychology Research   Hakvoort, I., & Oppenheimer, L. (1998). Understanding peace and war: A review of developmental psychology. Developmental Review, 18, 353-389.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WDH-45JB78X-D&_coverDate=09/30/1998&_alid=506884068&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_
qd=1&_cdi=6767&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000003858&_version=1&_urlVersion=
0&_userid=29441&md5=4b41f0d57fdc4d55c113e04dcedbfc7a

This article reviews studies about the understanding of children and adolescents regarding peace and war. The authors report that a number of the studies did not provide a theoretical framework for the interpretation and examination of the developing understanding of children regarding the concepts of war and peace. The discussion of the literature includes findings that pertain to the variations in of the meanings attached to war and peace by children and adolescents from different cultural settings, age groups, and sex. Finally, the authors also point out that, even though other variables such as socialization agents and institutions were theoretically included in the studies reviewed, there was a lack of empirical data that support their influence to the development of understanding on war and peace.

War exposure and maternal reactions in the psychological adjustment of children from Bosnia-Hercegovina   Smith, P., Perrin, S., Yule, W., & Rabe-Hesketh, S. (2001). War exposure and maternal reactions in the psychological adjustment of children from Bosnia-Hercegovina. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42 (3), 395-404.  http://journals.cambridge.org/

Data were collected in Bosnia from 339 children, their mothers, and their teachers to examine children's reactions to war and the factors that moderated them. There were high levels of post-traumatic symptoms in the children and the mothers. Child stress reactions were found to be related to maternal reactions and also to their level exposure to war. Structural equation modeling was used to examine and quantify the pathways that accounted for the association between maternal and child health. 

    Materials written and compiled by Larissa V. Frias and Judith Myers-Walls.